LANGUAGE
FOCUS: THE VOCABULARY SHIFT
A distinctive feature of academic writing
style is choosing the more formal
alternative when selecting
a verb, noun,
or other part
of speech.
Verbs
English
often has two
(or more) choices
to express an
action or occurrence. The
choice is often between a phrasal or prepositional verb (verb +
preposition) and a single verb, the latter with Latinate origins. Often
in lectures and other instances of everyday
spoken English, the verb +
preposition is used; however, for
written academic style, the preferred choice is a single verb wherever
possible.
This
is one of the
most dramatic stylistic
shifts from informal
to formal style.
Researchers looked at
the way strain builds up around a fault.
(less formal style)
Researchers observed
the way strain accumulates around a fault.
(academic style)
Choose a
verb from the
list that reduces
the informality of each sentence. Note that you may need to
add tense to the verb from the list.
assist
reduce create investigate raise
establish increase determine fluctuate eliminate
1. Expert Systems can help out the user in the
diagnosis of problems.
2.
This program was set up to improve access to medical care.
3.
Research expenditures have gone up to nearly $350 million.
4. The
use of optical character readers (OCRs) should cut down the number of problems
with the U.S. mail service.
5.
Researchers have found out that this drug has serious side effects.
6.
Building a nuclear power plant will not get rid of the energy problem
completely.
7.
Researchers have been looking into this problem for 15 years now.
8.
This issue was brought up during the investigation.
9.
Engineers can come up with better designs using CAD.
10.
The emission levels have been going up and down.
Reduce the
informality of each sentence
by substituting a
single verb for the one in italics.
1. The
implementation of computer-integrated-manufacturing (CIM) has brought about some serious problems.
2. The
process should be done over until the
desired results are achieved.
3.
Plans are being made to come up
with a database containing detailed
environmental information for the region.
4.
Subtle changes in the earth's crust were picked up by these new devices.
5.
Proposals to construct new nuclear reactors have met with great resistance from environmentalists.
Nouns and Other Parts of Speech
English has
a very rich vocabulary derived from many languages. Because of this,
there may be more than one way to express an idea. You should strive to choose
words that are less informal in nature and also precise. In lectures, you will
likely heartless formal speech; however, in writing you should use a more
formal form if one exists.
Which of the
underlined words would
be more suitable
for an academic
paper?
1. The
government has made good I considerable
progress in solving environmental problems.
2. We got I obtained encouraging results.
3.
The results of a lot of I
numerous different
projects have been pretty good I encouraging.
4. A
loss of jobs is
one of the things that
will happen I consequences if the
process is automated.
Supply a
more academic word
or phrase for
the one underlined
in each sentence.
5. The
reaction of the officials was sort of
negative.
6.
The economic outlook is mighty nice.
7.
The future of Federal funding is up in
the air.
8. America's
major automakers are planning to get together on the research needed
for more fuel
efficient cars.
Language
Focus: Formal Grammar and Style
The followings are some nonvocabulary-related recommendations
for maintaining a formal
academic writing style.
1. Avoid contractions.
Export
figures won't improve until the
economy is stronger. →
Export
figures will not
improve until the
economy is stronger.
2.
Use the more
appropriate formal negative forms.
not . . . any —> no
not. . . much —> little
not . . . many —> few
The
analysis didn't yield any
new results. —>
The
analysis yielded no new results.
The
government didn't allocate
much funding for
the program. —>
The
government allocated little
funding for the
program.
This problem doesn't have many viable
solutions. —>This problem has few
viable solutions.
3. Limit
the use of
"run on" expressions,
such as "and
so forth" and
"etc."
These semiconductors can be used in robots,
CD players, etc. —>
These
semiconductors can be used in robots,
CD players, and other
electronic devices.
4. Avoid
addressing the reader as "you" (except, of course, if you are writing
a textbook).
You can see the results in Table 1. -»
The results can be seen in Table
1.
5. Limit the use of direct questions.
What can be done to lower costs? —>
We now need to consider what can be done to
lower costs, or
We now need to consider how costs may be
lowered.
6. Place adverbs within the verb.
Adverbs
often are placed
midposition rather than
in the initial
or final positions.
In
informal English, adverbs
often occur as clauses at the beginning or end of sentences.
Then the solution can be discarded. —*
The
solution can then be
discarded.
The blood is withdrawn slowly. —*
The
blood is slowly withdrawn.
FLOW
Consider the following passages. Underline the
parts in passage b that
differ from passage a. Why does b
have better "flow" than a?
a.
Lasers have found widespread application in
medicine. Lasers play an
important role in
the treatment of eye
disease and the prevention of blindness.
The eye is ideally suited for laser surgery. Most of the eye tissue is transparent. The frequency and focus of the laser beam can
be adjusted according to the absorption of the tissue. The beam "cuts" inside the eye with
minimal damage to the surrounding tissue—even the tissue between the laser and
the incision. Lasers are effective in
treating some causes of blindness. Other
treatments are not. The interaction between
laser light and
eye tissue is not fully understood.
b.
Lasers have found widespread application in
medicine. For example, they play an
important role in the treatment of eye disease and the prevention of
blindness. The eye is ideally suited for
laser surgery because most of the eye tissue is transparent. Because of this
transparency, the frequency
and focus of the
laser beam can be
adjusted according to the
absorption of the tissue so that
the beam "cuts" inside
the eye with minimal damage to the
surrounding tissue—even the
tissue between the laser and
the incision. Lasers are also more effective than other
methods in treating some causes of blindness.
However, the interaction between laser light and eye tissue is not fully
understood
Language
Focus: Linking Words
and Phrases
Linking
words and phrases
can help a
writer maintain flow and establish
clear relationships between ideas. Table 1 lists some of the more common
linking words and
phrases, arranged according
to their function and
grammatical use. Sentence
connectors raise a small,
but important issue,
namely punctuation. The flowchart in figure 2 can
help you choose appropriate
punctuation.
TABLE 1. Linking Words and Phrases
|
Subordinators
|
Sentence
Connectors
|
Phrase
Linkers
|
Addition
|
|
Furthermore,
in
addition,
moreover
|
in
addition to
|
Adversative
|
Although,
even
though,
despite
the fact that
|
However,
nevertheless
|
Despite,
in spite of
|
Cause and
Effect
|
Because,
since
|
Therefore,
as a result,
consequently,
hence,
thus*
|
because of,
due to,
as a result of
|
Clarification
|
|
in other
words,
that is,
i.e.
|
|
Contrast
|
While,
whereas
|
in
contrast,
however,
on
the other
hand,
conversely
|
unlike
|
Illustration
|
|
for
example,
for
instance
|
|
Intensification
|
|
on the contrary,
as a matter of
fact,
in fact
|
|
Punctuation
depends on
the type of
initiator in
the second clause.
Use a comma.
|
Conjunction
and, but, or
|
Subordinator
because, if,
while . . .
|
Use a comma.
|
Connector
however, thus,
also . . .
|
Use a
semicolon or
period.
|
Birds fly, but Birds fly;however, Birds fly, while
fish
swim. fish swim. fish swim.
If there is no
second clause initiator (such as but, if, or hence),
punctuation
depends on the type of clause being joined.
Nonfinite +
Finite
Use
a comma.
His theory being
wrong, he lost
the argument.
|
Finite + Finite
Use a
semicolon.
His theory was
wrong; he lost
the argument.
|
Finite +
Nonfinite
Use a comma.
He lost the
argument, his
theory being
wrong
|
Edit the following passage by adding semicolons or commas
where necessary.
1Aluminum alloys are now more important in the
automobile industry than ever before. 2 The government
is pressuring the industry to
produce cars of high
quality and with
high fuel efficiency
hence car makers
are replacing traditional
iron-based alloys with aluminum alloys.
3Aluminum alloy parts are typically one-third to
one-half the weight of those
made with steel
as a result cars with all
aluminum parts use approximately 50%
less fuel than those with steel components. 4Although most aluminum alloys are soft they can
have a higher tensile strength than steel. 5Adequate alloy and solution treatment can increase
their tensile strength thus resulting in a vehicle with good impact capacity.
Supply linking words or
phrases that enhance
the flow of the passage. Look carefully at the punctuation to help you
make an appropriate choice.
1Many modern artists are using
computers in their work because these machines enable the artist to be more creative. 2 Some
artists believe computers
will gain in
popularity;____________________ , others feel they will have at best a
fleeting presence in the art world. 3The
computer is not a conventional art tool exactly like a brush, pencil, or
hammer; ____________________ , it
is a tool
that provides greater
flexibility. 4
____________________the use of computers
for artistic purposes seems somewhat unusual,
researchers believe their
use will indeed become
more widespread in
the next century.
5 Changes can be made
quickly and easily
when artists use
computers.
6____________________ ,
copying portions of a painting, drawing, or
musical composition can be done
with a keystroke, ____________________saving the
artist considerable time. 7____________________ some initial resistance, the artistic community
is beginning to
realize that technology
can indeed play a role
in creativity.
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